One year ago, on 18 September 2015, authorities in the United States revealed that German carmaker Volkswagen Group (VW) had cheated on emissions tests.
A few days later, EU industry commissioner Elzbieta Bienkowska spoke out in strident terms.
"Our message is clear: zero tolerance on fraud and rigorous compliance with EU rules. We need full disclosure and robust pollutant emissions tests in place," she said.
But has there really been zero tolerance on fraud?
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